He led two unsuccessful coups against the right-wing Batista regime and led the revolution that overthrew the dictator 1959. He raised the standard of living for most Cubans but dealt harshly with dissenters. From 1990, deprived of the support of the USSR and experiencing the long-term effects of a US trade embargo, Castro faced increasing pressure for reform; in Sept 1995 he moved towards greater economic flexibility by permitting foreign ownership in major areas of commerce and industry. Of wealthy parentage, Castro was educated at Jesuit schools and, after studying law at the University of Havana, gained a reputation through his work for poor clients. He opposed the Batista dictatorship, and took part, with his brother Raul, in an unsuccessful attack on the army barracks at Santiago de Cuba 1953. After some time in exile in the USA and Mexico, Castro attempted a secret landing in Cuba 1956 in which all but 11 of his supporters were killed. He eventually gathered an army of over 5,000 which overthrew Batista on 1 Jan 1959 and he became prime minister a few months later. Raul Castro was appointed minister of armed forces. Castro's administration introduced a centrally planned economy based on the production for export of sugar, tobacco, and nickel. He nationalized the property of wealthy Cubans, Americans, and other foreigners 1960, resulting in the severance of relations by the USA, an economic embargo, and US attempts to subvert Cuba's government (or invade and overthrow it). This enmity came to a head in the Cuban missile crisis 1962. Aid for development was provided by the USSR, which replaced the USA as Cuba's main trading partner, and Castro espoused Marxism-Leninism until, in 1974, he rejected Marx's formula "from each according to his ability and to each according to his need" and decreed that each Cuban should "receive according to his work". He improved education, housing, and health care for the majority of Cubans but lost the support of the middle class, hundreds of thousands of whom fled the country. After 1990 events in E Europe and the disintegration of the USSR left Castro increasingly isolated, and by 1993 the US embargo had gravely weakened the country's economy, provoking increasing numbers of Cubans to flee the country.
